PHILOSOPHY REVIEWER SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL

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PHILOSOPHY REVIEWER

DOING PHILOSOPHY

Question of Reality
Reality- state of existence of things independent of human consciousness
Includes physical things and things that we cannot easily perceive and comprehend
“objective and absolute” reality = everything has a specific nature or character

Concrete- ex. Red balloon
Abstract- ex. Many colorful balloons

Metaphysics- questions regarding reality
Ontology- classification of existing things

Question of Certainty
Certainty- perfect knowledge free from error or doubt
Truth- central concept in the question of certainty
Knowledge- man is able to know
Data that tells it is true
Rationalism- theory on knowledge, pure reasoning
Priori Knowledge- reasoning without experience
Empiricism- theory on knowledge, experience
Posteriori Knowledge- knowledge gained from experience
Skepticism- questions the certainty of established doctrines or truths, mind has limits
All knowledge is uncertain
Epistemology- nature and extent of knowledge

Question of Causality
Causality- causes of events and phenomena, cause-and-effect rela
Questions regarding origin of things
Purpose- explanation of a thing’s function or goal, reason for a thing’s existence
Ultimate cause- thing’s purpose
Agency- capacity of man to govern or control his actions
Free will- ability to choose among possible actions
Choice- important aspect of any discussion on agency and free will
Determinism- each event is determined or influenced by a specific set of events or factors
Destiny- predetermined course of events leading to a specific outcome
Etiology- studies causality
Teleology- question of purpose

Question of Ethics
Ethics- standards of right and wrong, define human behavior, “greater good”, duty, obligation and virtue
Ethics and Moral Philosophy- apply and analyze these concepts in various situations, contexts, and cultures, and recommends guidelines that will govern the decisions and actions of people

PHILOSOPHICAL INQUIRIES

Systematic Doubt
Skeptical attitude
Argument
Engage in discussion and debate on their ideas, justify your answer

Dialectic
Varied and differing ideas and perspectives are analyzed, formulating new ideas

METHODS

Socratic Method
Series of question
Axioms
Greek: “Axioma”=”true but still arguments to prove”
Assumptions which are taken for granted
Provide a foundation and direction
Basis of discussion and debate
Occam’s Razor
Problem-solving device
Among possible explanations, one with the least assumptions is the most acceptable
William of Ockham (1287-1347)
English Franciscan friar and theologian, influential medieval philosopher and nominalist
Razor= shaving away unnecessary assumptions or cutting apart two similar conclusions
Formal Logic
Research and data
Systematic analysis of the validity of arguments and statements
Use of syllogisms or logical arguments
Thought experiment and allegory
Imagined scenarios

Avicenna’s “floating man”

Relationship between perception and human mind
Avicenna: father of modern math
“there is nothing in the mind which was not first in the senses”

Ship of Theseus

Concept of an object’s identity
Or “Seus Paradox”
M. Straka
Whether an object that has had all of its components replaced remains fundamentally the same object

Prisoner’s Dilemma\

Individual’s objectives and motivations affect his willingness to cooperate
Merrilll Flood and Melvin Dresher
Why 2 completely rational individuals might not cooperate, even if it is in best interest to do so

Allegory of the Cave

Plato
Describe his theory of forms and his ideas on how our perception affects knowledge

DETERMINING TRUTH

Correspondence Theory
Something is true if it corresponds to reality
Coherence Theory
Makes sense when placed in a certain situation and context
Varied truths from different perspectives
Proposed by Francis Bradley
Relativism- no absolute truth
An idea or principle is only true within a particular context
Constructivist Theory
Knowledge is shaped by social forces and influenced by culture and history
Founded by Jerome Seymour Bruner
Consensus Theory
Knowledge based on agreements
Something is true if almost everyone agrees that it is true
Pragmatic Theory
Something is true if we can put it into practice, useful in real life
Verificationism- senses/experiences

CONSIDERATIONS IN ORDER TO ESTABLISH SOMETHING AS TRUE

Arguments
Reasonable phrases
Fallacies
Faulty reasoning
Facts
Establishe truths and easily verified
Opinion
Subjective information or personal ideas
Has a tendency to be biased (depends on the speaker)
Bias
Personal views

FALLACIES

Ad Hominem- latin word, “to the man”, “to the person”
Attacking the person
Appeal to Force- threat of force or undesirable threat
Appeal to Emotion- pity or sympathy
Appeal to the Popular- acceptable because a lot of people accept it
Appeal to Tradition- acceptable because it has been true for a long time
Begging the question- assuming that the thing or idea to be proven is true, “circular argument”
Cause-and-effect – cause&effect rela
Fallacy of Composition- what is true for the part is true for the whole
Fallacy of Division- what is true for the whole is true for the part

BIASES

Correspondence bias or attribution effect- judge a person’s personality by his or her actions
Confirmation bias- look for and readily accept information which fits with one’s own beliefs or views and to reject ideas or views against it
Framing- focus on certain aspect and ignoring other aspects
Hindsight- tendency to see past events as predictable, pattern to historical events
Conflict of Interest- person or group is connected or has vested interest in the issue being discussed
Cultural Bias- based on one’s cultural standards

THE HUMAN PERSON

Man- entire human race
Humanity, mankind, humankind
Human- man as species (homo sapiens sapiens or modern human beings)
Person- human being granted recognition of certain rights, protection, and responsibilities

Biological Perspective
man as a part of the natural world and a product of evolution
Modern humans- homo sapiens sapiens, most successfully adapted species on the planet, most widespread and dominant species
Closely related to apes
Human additional traits & capabilities:

Planning and intentional action\
Innovation and creativity
Communication through language and writing
Technology
Symbolic interaction- art & religion

Culture- man’s most significant achievement that set apart the evolution of humanity from other species
Psychological Perspective
human behavior and thought processes in analyzing human nature
Mental faculties and capabilities:
Psyche- human mind, divided into

conscious mind- governs awareness
unconscious mind- latent or repressed (nakatago) emotions, thoughts, desires

Rationality – state of being reasonable
Ability to understand experiences in order to solve problems or do tasks, and engage in decision making and judgment
Intelligence- ability to perceive information, store knowledge, apply it in various situations
IQ and EQ
Introspection- examine one’s own conscious thoughts, feelings, and mental state, and the capacity for self-reflection

Economic Perspective
Man’s ability to engage in productive activities in an effort to meet his wants and needs
Man as a productive being, primary role is to produce and engage in labor
“economic man”= “homo economicus” – driven by rationality and self-interest in his desire to possess wealth
Economic forces- greater influence on the actions of man than society or culture

Theological Perspective
Man as God’s creation
Special relationship with creator
Created in His image and given an immortal spirit
Man’s existence brought by purposive creative act of God, and ultimate destiny is part of a divine plan

Human Person
Individual, and all the attributes snd characteristics that set him apar from other human beings
Awareness of Self
Sentience- ability to feel and experience
Ability to perceive the surroundings and react to stimulus such as pain
The self as innate- self is an essential part of the human being, self- awareness is natural and innate
Religious views- self as synonymous to spirit or soul
The self as emergent- awareness of self through interaction with the world and other human beings
The self as integrated and developing- self is composed of varied elements that change over time
Identity- distinct personality of an individual
Persist through time, may change
Personhood- recognition of a human being as a distinct entity- a person
The person as an “autonomous being”- “reasoned free choice”
Man possesses reason, capacity for reflection, ability to engage in decision making
The person as a “unified individual”- inherent capacity to function as a person
Human possessed the means to achieve his or her capabilities
The person in relation to others
Human being becomes a person through interactions with other human beings
Pope John Paul II – person is defined by his or her actions and experiences, achieves self- development and fulfillment

May not be recognized as a person:

People suffering from debilitating conditions that impair judgment – lack means to make decisions
Person suffers extensive brain damage or a comatose individual – other people make decisions for them
Ancient times, slaves were considered a property
Women were also not granted recognition as persons during most of the ancient period
African slaves were considered to be “subhuman” and were considered equivalent only to “three-fifths of a person”

1^ST SEM FINALS

PHILOSOPHY AND SPIRITUALITY

Spirit
Human soul, immortal and non-corporeal essence of a man
Major monotheistic religions- man is the only being with soul
Other religions, Jainism and Hinduisn, non-living things has soul
Embodiment
Central concept in discussing the nature of human soul
Discussions on the nature of human consciousness
Consciousness has both physical and non-physical nature
Embodied cognition
man is able to perceive and experience reality through his physical body/ senses
Enactivism
Cognition arises through interaction between organism & its environment

Christian doctrine:spirit is created by God
Spirit continues to persist in afterlife
Spirit essential element for the salvation of mankind
Departed spirits will be raised from the dead during end times and shall receive judgment of God

NATURE OF SPIRIT

PLATO: human mind is immortal & persists after the death of the body

human spirit or soul 3 parts:

Logos- mind or reason
Thymos- emotion
Eros- desire
ARISTOTLE- soul as integrated into the human body, soul is part of the man’s essence enables him to achive his ultimate purpose

MIND-BODY PROBLEM

questions of how the mental or nonphysical are able to interact with the physical body

PHYSICALISM

physical processes determine the state of the mind

IDEALISM

mental processes and thoughts are the only reality

MONISM

human being is composed of elements that are neither physical nor mental

DUALISM

distinctiveness of the physical and mental nature of man

AVICENNA

argued that self-awareness and consciousness exists even if the body is deprived of its senses

RENE DESCARTES

proposed that the mind and body exist as two separate entities which interact with one another

ST. THOMAS AQUINAS

soul is the “first actuality” of the body
for there to be a body, there should be first a soul
soul has substance but no physical or concrete form, exists w/o body

ST. AUGUSTINE

soul the driving force which governs the body and defines the human person

TRICHOTOMIC VIEW

man is composed of the body, soul and spirit
soul- component which gives man life and will
spirit- enables man to establish connection with God

DICHOTOMIC VIEW

no distinction between spirit and soul
man composed of body and spirit

PSYCHOSOMATIC UNITY

man is of a single or unitary constitution
body and spirit are inseparable and integrated

human person is the union of the body and soul
man’s soul enables him to know and love God, and grant him the dignity of a person
through the soul man is able to share in God’s life, relationship with God that defines his existence

THEOLOGY

study of God and other religious concepts
concept of divine, existence of God

THEISM

belief in the existence of a God or several deities
Monotheism- single God

GOD

Supreme being which governs all existence, and the center of faith and devotion of a religion
Omniscience- God is all-knowing
Omnipotence- God is all-powerful
Omnipresence- God is perfectly good, just, and all-loving
Divine Simplicity- all attributes are integrated and embodied of Him
Not just good, He is goodness itself
Eternal- timeless no beginning&end
Revealed Theology
study of God through the analysis of sacred texts
Natural Theology
substantiate existence of God
Ontological Argument
Since man is a rational being, able conceive the notion of a Supreme being, such Supreme being exists
Teleological Argument
Focuses on the purpose of God would play in the universe
Supreme being is necessary for the continued existence of an orderly but complex universe
Cosmological Argument
Nature of existence and the universe
Recognizes the existence of God as an explanation of how things came to being in a reality
Kalam Cosmological Argument
Everything that has a beginning has a cause
The universe has a beginning
Therefore, universe has a cause
God is the cause that brought about the beginning of the universe
Moral Argument
Man’s ethical nature is brought about the existence of God
God is the representation of the “greatest good”, all standards of goodness is based
By William Sorley

ST. THOMAS AQUINAS

God as the “prime mover”, “first cause of existence”, “source of being” of reality and universe

GOTTFRIED LEIBNIZ

Existence of God on the “principle of sufficient reason”
All facts and events must have an explanation
Existence of the universe must have an explanation and the sufficient explanation is the existence of God

THEISM

Existence of God or deities

AGNOTICISM

Metaphysical concepts such as God inherently unknowable

ATHEISM

Rejection or nonbelief in the existence of God or any deity

Redemptive Salvation
Divine Providence- blessings, miracles, divine inspiration, and revelation

IMMANENCE

God manifesting Himself as a unique identity
Other religions: take human form
Christian: Jesus Christ then Holy Spirit

TRANSCENDENCE

God as existing outside the material world (heaven), presence is beyond physical laws and even human knowledge and understanding
Panentheistic view- God is both beyond and within universe
Pantheistic view- God is an all-encompassing presence in the universe, no distinct presence
Pandeistic view- God was a distinct entity but lost this state when He transformed Himself into the universe
Transcendental experiences- prayer, meditation, visions

IMMANUEL KANT

Human transcendence is based on rationality
Humans are able to comprehend certain abstract concepts that have no equivalent physical object or sesnsory experience

JEAN-PAUL SARTRE

Person’s ability to comprehend and relate objects and beings outside of his own self as an indication of transcendence
Ability of person to relate to people, things, and experiences in meaningful manner

MAN AND HIS ENVIRONMENT

ENVIRONMENTAL PHILOSOPHY

Branch of philosophy concerned with natural environment and humanity’s place within it

ANTHROPOCENTRISM

Human are the central and most significant species on the planet
Primary cause that drives changes in the environment

DEEP ECOLOGY

Natural world as being maintained by the interrelationship among living organisms and that every living thing on the planet is dependent on each other for survival
Human interference as significant threat to the natural world

GAIA HYPOTHESIS

By James Lovelock
Non-organic elements play a significant role in maintaining balance in the environment as they interact with living organisms to regulate various systems

Theological Views

Gen 1:26-28 – mankind is intended to live in harmony with all creation
God created man and granted him dominion over all creatures and tasked him to subdue the earth
Pope John Paul II- man’s lordship over nature as a “ministerial act”, a continuation of the work of the Creator, must be done with wisdom and love

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) 2014 study

Human activities have contributed to the rise of global temperatures through the release of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere

ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS

Emerged in the 1970s
Advocated human responsibility and action with regard to environmental issues

All nonhuman (animals, natural resources) have intrinsic value and should be preserved
Preservation of the environment is beneficial for humasn
Man has responsibility to safeguard the planet as it has been entrusted to him by God

SOCIAL ECOLOGY

Ecological and ethical approach in analyzing society, sees relationship between social problems and environmental problems
Society should implement changes to address environmental issues

CLIMATE ETHICS & CLIMATE JUSTICE

Fair distribution of environmental benefits, also burden of meeting environmental challenges

ENVIRONMENTAL AESTHETICS

Greek word “Aesthesis”= perception of the senses
Concepts of beauty in nature but has recently been increasingly influenced by environmental concerns

ENVIRONMENTALISM

Important issue in international politics as governments and international organizations have devoted efforts to discuss environmental issues and formulate plans to address them

KYOTO PROTOCOL 1997

Various nations committed to reduce greenhouse gas emisssions

EARTH DAY

First instituted in 1970
Global effort to raise awareness of environmental issues and inspire action

FREEDOM

Or “Liberty” is a social and political concept which has great significance in how people participate in society
In political and social context is the freedom of an individual from oppression, compulsion, or coercion from other persons
“Age of Enlightenment”- early man existed in a “natural state” and had absolute freedom
Establishment of societies- “social contract”

POLITICAL FREEDOM:

Positive Liberty- person taking control of his or her own life and fulfilling one’s potential
Negative Liberty- freedom from external restraint, barriers, and other interferences from other people

LIBERALISM

Preservation of individual rights and stresses the role of the government in protecting these civil liberties

LIBERTARIANISM

Individual, not the government, is the best judge in upholding and exercising rights.

SOCIALISM

Freedom to acquire economic resources and the ability to work and act according to one’s desires
Maximizing one’s potential

NATURAL RIGHTS

Innate in the person, universal and inalienable
Such as the right to life

LEGAL RIGHTS

Rights that are based on society’s customs and laws, and are enacted by legislation and enforced by a govt

THEOLOGICAL VIEWS- freedom from sin and living a life of righteousness, living in accordance with the will of God

HUMAN AGENCY

Capacity of a person to act and exert control over his or her behavior

FREE WILL

Capacity to choose from alternative courses of action or decision

FREE ACTION

Freedom to perform an action without any obstacle or hindrances

FACULTIES MODEL

Free will as the use of mental faculties
Human action is based on rationality and sound judgment

HIERARCHICAL MODEL

Free will is based on human wants and desires
When he or she identifies one desire as acceptable and decides to act on it

THE REASONS-RESPONSIVE VIEW

Man has free will because he or she is able to entertain reasons not to enact a certain decision and act upon them when the need arises
Planning, crossing out one unattainable decision

CONSTRAINTS ON FREE ACTION

Prohibitions
Laws
Social controls imposed by society
Person with disability or sickness
Weather, accidents, poverty

DETERMINISM

Every event in the world is brought about by underlying causes or factors

MARXIST PHILOSOPHY

Society imposes certain controls on people, and that a person’s social group largely influences how he or she thinks or acts
Man is essentially constrained by society

MORAL RESPONSIBILITY

Person’s status of deserving praise and reward, or blame and punishment for an action

CONTROL AND REGULATION

Necessary elements in the responsible exercises of freedom

THE PERSON AND OTHERS

EXISTENTIALISM & PHENOMENOLOGY

Major philosophical branches that devote much discussion on the concept of interpersonal relations

SELF

Egocentric perspective that defines how he or she perceives and relates to reality

OTHER

Objects outside of personal experience, other individuals apart from the self

INTERSUBJECTIVITY

Shared awareness and understanding among persons
Shared or common knowledge and consensus, shared emotions such as grief, joy, love

Various levels of self-other interactions

1.simple awareness of the existence of other

We are aware that they are other beings unique from us, they exist outside of our own awareness or perception

2.awareness of the self as being seen by others

You are immediately aware of this person’s action as an other

3.awareness of the self in the other

The way we act with other people is often influenced by our ideas of how these people see us

SEEMING

Martin Buber
Individual presents himself or herself in a certain way when dealing with others
Taking on roles or characters when dealing with certain people or when in certain situations

DIALOGUE

Genuine relationship established among individuals

EXISTENTIALISTS: consider human relationships as a defining influence on human life

CONSTRUCTIVIST THEORY OF KNOWLEDGE

Shape knowledge and truth within a certain society

PHENOMENOLOGISTS: shared experience between persons can shape the perception of reality

ALIENATION

Individual ceases to view other as distinct and authentic person,and considers him or her as a mere object
Karl Marx: alienation gives rise to exploitation of people

EMPATHY

Edith Stein
Awareness that the other is a person with thoughts and feelings
Edmund Husserl: put oneself ”in the place where the other is”

AVAILABILITY

Gabriel Marcel
Willingness of a person to be present and be at the disposal of another

ETHICS OF CARE

Emphasizes the moral dimension of relationships and interactions
To see needs of other people, most especially the vulnerable

Human person is regarded by Philosophy as a “being-with-others”
Seeking and maintaining meaningful and harmonious relationships with others is necessary for personal development

CHRISTIAN PERSPECTIVE

Human relations in the context of community
Strongest bonds are those that involve parents and their children, friends, and the bond between man and wife
Even greater still is the relationship between God and man which is defined as a fellowship & covenant
Old Testament- Creation, Noah’s salvation from the Great Flood, Abraham’s journey to the Promised Land, deliverance of the Israelites from Egypt, Ten Commandments, God’s Promise to Davi
New Testament- Jesus Christ, death and resurrection, importance of fellowship among men
“love your neighbor as yourself”

(Mark 12:31)

“do unto others what you would have them do unto you”

(Matthew 7:12)

Compels us to be sympathetic most especially to the least of our breathen

MAN AND SOCIETY

SOCIETY

Large, independent, and organized group of people living in the same territory and sharing a common culture and heritage
Hunting-and-gathering societies
Lifestyle dependent on resources readily available from their surroundings, “primitive”
Agricultural societies
Agricultural activities, farming, fishing, livestock-raising
Industrial societies
Mechanized production and the exchange of goods and services
Modern societies
Technologically-advanced societies characterized by industry, mass production, and advanced communication & transportation
Virtual society
Not confined by territory and are composed of individuals coming from various social backgrounds

SOCIAL PHILOSOPHY

Studying society and its influences on the human person

FORMATION OF SOCIETIES

Humans are considered to have a natural tendency to cooperate and organize, and society is a natural outcome of this human tendency to socialize
Humans as living in a so-called “natural state” removed fromo modernity and civilization

THOMAS HOBBES

Man in natural state is governed by his desires that leads into conflict
Society is therefore men seek to control their natural tendencies and impose order
“Social contract” – agreement where individual sacrifices some of their wants and submit to a higher authority to meet the needs of many

JOHN LOCKE

Man in natural state as more cooperative and reasonable
Society is formed through the consent of the individuals
“Consent of the governed” – covenant among individuals to cooperate and share the burden of upholding the welfare of society

JEAN JACQUES ROUSSEAU

“General will” – people are the ones who organized society & established an authority & government, government is able to impose its will on people and the best judge of what is most beneficial for society

JOHN RAWLS

Redefines social contract and explained that human beings approach social cooperation in a rational manner in order to meet their individual self-interests
Introduced new version of natural state “original position” to explain social formation, “veil of ignorance” no knowledge of one’s own characteristics

DAVID GAUTHIER

“self-interest” a significant factor in building and maintaining societies

SOCIALIZATION

Individual learns the prevailing behaviors, attitudes,, and values within his or her society, a person adopts a set of ideals and behavior considered appropriate within his or her society
Individuals retain their own unique traits, society directly and indirectly influences certain aspects of individual behavior

STANFORD PRISON EXPERIMENT

Stanford University 1971
24 male volunteers with sound mental state and had no history of violence participate in a simulated prison as prison guards and prisoners
Guards began to implement harsh and abusive measures against the prisoners, the prisoners then began to rebel so the researchers had to stop

SOCIAL ROLES

Set of expected behaviors that must be performed by a person

SOCIAL GROUP

People in a social group tend to behave a certain way, and continuous interactions within their group reinforce such behavior

NORMATIVE DEMOCRATIC THEORY

Perspective which considers a democratic society as morally desirable

Western Society- more individualistic & secular, being assertive and direct

Asian Societies- more rigid and formal, value respect, familial relations, social status

SMOOTH INTERPERSONAL RELATIONSHIPS

Community relations are defined by the desire to establish and maintain

FILIPINO SOCIETY

Very close relationship among family members and members of extended family
Traditions: pakikisama, pakikipagkapwa-tao, utang-na-loob, damayan, bayanihan
Religion has an important role= family-centered and conservative (fiesta, Christmas, Holy Week)

HAPPINESS

DEFINITIONS:

Can be interpreted as a state of mind
in a good mood
Can still maintain his or her happiness even if he or she is experiencing difficulties in life

2. Evaluation of one’s experiences in life

a. satisfying life

EUDAIMONIA (good spirit)

Person’s state of well-being or happinesss, term used by Ancient Greeks

PLATO

Equates happiness with living a moral life, practicing virtues, fulfilling personal duties, and controlling one’s desires

ARISTOTLE

Happiness is the primary reason for human action,
One becomes happy through the practice of virtues and the accumulation of achievements

EPICUREANS

Happiness means a life of peace that is free from fear and discomfort

ST. AUGUSTINE & ST. THOMAS AQUINAS

Happiness as a union with God
Achieving unity with the Divine, and man’s eventual union with God is the epitome of happiness

GREATEST HAPPINESS PRINCIPLE

Utilitarianism proposes a view on happiness based on this
Person’s actions are considered moral or desirable when they produce the greatest happiness for other people

WHOLE LIFE SATISFACTION

Person is able to evaluate his or her life experiences and determine his or her level of satisfaction with how he or she has lived life

WLADYSLAW TATARKIEWICZ

Happiness as “satisfaction with one’s life as a whole”

RICHARD BRANDT

Person’s happiness based on a total life pattern- a person should not only be satisfied with thhe life he or she has lived, but must also feel constant joy and enthusiasm in life

WAYNE SUMNER

Happiness in two ways:

Cognitive perspective- one must able to look back at past experiences and have positive evaluation of his or her condition
Emotional or affective side- happiness is brought about by a sense of well being in having lived a life that is enriching and rewarding

3 DISTINCT ELEMENTS OF HAPPINESS

1.Contentment- satisfaction with one’s life

2.Welfare- satisfaction of a person’s wants and desires plus basic needs

3. Dignity- ability to control and define one’s own destiny, and the freedom to live a life of one’s choosing

PSYCHOLOGISTS

Happiness as a balance between a person’s emotions, moods,& feelings
Combination of physical, emotional, psychological happiness

ECONOMISTS

Use socioeconomic data to define happiness and well-being in numerical terms, giving rise to various statistics such as the Gross National Happiness Index & Gross National Well-Being Index
Factors such as: sustainable development, promotion of cultural values, preservation of the environment, good governance
2011, UN recognized happiness as “a fundamental human goal and universal aspiration”
World Happiness report since 2012

ETHICS

Significant role in discussing happiness &the means to achieve it

ARISTOTLE

Set worthwhile goals, determine role in society
Devote himself or herself to public service and contribute to the good of society
Goal that will lead to true happiness is the pursuit of knowledge

EPICUREANS

Happiness is possible if one enjoys the simple pleasures of life and commits to a life of virtue

ST. AUGUSTINE

Happiness can be found in the afterlife when the spirit reunites with God

JEREMY BENTHAM

Happiness is achieved through wise decision-making

IMMANUEL KANT

Achieving happiness is impossible because of the ever-changing nature of man’s desires.

SUFFERING

Mild, moderate, severe
Experience of unpleasantness, discomfort, and pain
Threats to human existence or the lack of pleasure or happiness
Can also be caused by conflict between “perfect world” and actual state of world leading to anxiety, uncertainty and dread
Physical Suffering
Physical sensations, discomfort, hunger, distress, pain caused by injury, disease and the lack of basic needs
Mental Suffering
Emotional and mental states depression, anxiety, fear, loneliness and grief caused by sudden changes in lifestyle, loss of employment, stressful situations, and grief caused by death of loved one

WELTSCHMERZ

Man’s realization that the world can never live up to the ideal “perfect world” leading to feelings of sadness or apathy

ANGST

Fear and anxiety
Relate this feeling to “existential dread”- crisis brought when a person begins to question his or her purpose and reason for being

ENNUI

Feeling of weariness and discontent brought by a lack of interest or intense boredom with the world

TWO MAJOR PHILOSOPHICAL VIEWS

Suffering as an undesirable human condition, and that humans naturally seek pleasure and avoid pain

ARTHUR SCHOPENHAUER

“proposed a view of world controlled by chaotic forces that bring about human suffering”

German Philosopher, best known for his 1818 work the “World as Will & Representation”
Developed an atheistic metaphysical & ethical system that has been described as an exemplary manifestation of philosophical pessimism
“pessimistic view” – human existence is characterized by suffering caused by man’s inability to meet his unlimited wants&desires

Suffering is necessary to human existence. Suffering is essential because it defines human existence, to grow, for u to become stronger

FRIEDRICH NIETZSCHE

“suffering is inevitable, and that man is meant to suffer”

German Philosopher whose work has exerted a profound influence on Western Philosophy and Modern Intellectual history
Certain forms of suffering can be beneficial and can result in personal growth and development, test of a person’s worth

GEORGE SEFLER

Suffering as one of many interrelated elements that define the meaning of experiences throughout life
Suffering and happiness go hand-in-hand in defining a person’s views on his life’s experiences
Balance between positive and negative experiences will result in a well-adjusted, functional person

THEODICY

Philosophical branch which tries to reconcile the existence of a benevolent, all-good God with the reality of suffering in the world

COPING

Means that a person employs in dealing with difficult life situations, and involves a conscious effort to solve personal and interpersonal problems
EPICUREANS- suffering can be avoided by seeking only the pleasurable things in life and avoiding those that cause harm or pain
STOICS- one must face difficulties in life with fortitude and patience
NIETZSCHE- human suffering emphasize individual’s roles in making sense of adversity, a person should face his or her suffering and take responsibility for it

HUMANITARIANISM

Purpose of a person’s existence is to make other people happy

SOCIAL SUPPORT/GROUPS

Family
Peer group
Religious groups

DEATH

End of all biological functions that sustain a living organism
Causes: aging, injury, fatal injury
“brain death” – ceasing of all brain functions, clinically dead
Natural occurrence

AGING OR SENESCENCE

gradual decline of the human body
decline of the senses- sight and hearing, gradual loss of vitality and mobility, mental decline, increased frailty and susceptibility to injury or disease

REINCARNATION

belief that a person’s spirit begins a new life in another body

ETERNAL OBLIVION

belief that the person’s consciousness is completely erased upon death, wala ng senses but still has unconscious mind

*first & last sense- hearing

CEREMONIES & COMMEMORATION

All Souls Day
Chinese Ghost Festival
Mexican Day of the Dead

PHILIPPINE SOCIETY

Wake- opportunity to come together in memory of the deceased
Abuloy- voluntary contributions for the family of the deceased
Funeral procession- important practice, adopt a respectful and somber attitude as the procession passes

DUALIST PERSPECTIVE

Mind and spirit, being incorporeal, persists after the body’s demise, his spirit endures after death

AFTERLIFE

Believed that the spirit of the dead survives and continues to persist

NEAR DEATH EXPERIENCE

People who were close to death reported experiences of an afterlife
“out-of-body experience”- person views his or her body or the events surrounding his or her apparent death from a distance

ETERNAL OBLIVION

Opposite view to the belief in afterlife
Belief that death totally extinguishes the consciousness of the person
Denies the existence of a noncorporeal, immortal aspect in man, and considers death as the end of a person’s existence

MORTALITY SALIENCE

Man’s awareness of the inevitability of death

MARTIN HEIDEGGER

(German Philosopher)

He believes that man is being oriented towards death (being-toward-death)
Human existence is fundamentally defined by the awareness of one’s impending death
Fulfillment of existence, acceptance of one’s morality ->sense of freedom
“every man is a born men and dies as a single one”

LUDWIG JOSEPH JOHAN WITTGENSTEIN

(Austrian)

Death is a phenomenon that is outside of human experience, we do not live to experience death
“where one cannot speak, thereof one must be silent”

KARL JASPERS

(German-Swiss Psychiatrist & Philosopher)

Death as the most significant “limit situation”
one should have the capacity to alter his or her perspectives and ideas to be able to live with the fact that he or she is destined to die
“what is meaningful cannot in fact be isolated”

ERIK ERIKSON

(Psychologist)

Defines death as an important aspect in the development of man
“Doubt is the brother of shame”

EGO INTEGRITY VS DESPAIR

Last stage of our lives,
Ego Integrity- a person achieving his or her life’s purpose or having come to terms with his or her life
Despair- person views his or her life as a failure or his or her life experiences as generally unsatisfactory
Wisdom- view of life undaunted by death

CHRISTIAN PERSPECTIVE

Death in the context of man’s spiritual nature
Death entails destruction of the physical body, as man is created from dust and in death, he returns to dust (General 3:19)
Man’s Spirituality- defines his existence as it is the person’s ultimate destiny to live on in eternity as a spirit united with God

THEISTIC VIEW

Meaning of life as a part of a larger plan devised by God

GRIEF

Natural reaction to death and dying
Involves multitude of emotions such as sadness, anxiety, anger, and guilt
May also be brought by forms of loss

BEREAVEMENT

State of loss brought by death

MOURNING

Process by which persons deal with death

FIVE STAGES OF GRIEF

(Elisabeth Kubler-Ross)

DENIAL- dying person initially expresses disbelief
often refuse to believe the news at first
ANGER- person expresses frustration with his or her situation,
their situation is “unfair” often thinking that the deceased did not deserve such fate
BARGAINING- dying person is willing to do anything to survive and to prolong his or he life,
things will improve if they behave in a certain way or make changes in their lives
DEPRESSION- intense sadness and exhibits disinterest in life and its normal routines,
Person may become withdrawn, sullen and express hopelessness
Experience certain emotional or mental problems
ACCEPTANCE- last emotional stage, person finally comes to terms with his or her impending death and has embraced his or her morality
calm & emotionally stable, source of emotional support for their grieving family members

FOUR TRAJECTORIES OF GRIEF

(George Bonnano)

RESILIENCE- emotionally stable despite the loss, continue with normal activities
Most ideal emotional course when experiencing grief
RECOVERY- person experiences a period of grief, eventually gives way to recovery and a return to normalcy
CHRONIC DEPRESSION- continues long after the death or traumatic experience has passed,
may persist for several years often needs counseling & support

*Acute Depression- sudden